The Right to Make Mistakes. How Do Teachers’ Beliefs Shape Pedagogical Decisions?

   The article presents an analysis of primary school teachers’ beliefs about the role of error in the educational process and identifies strategies that contribute to fostering a positive error climate in the classroom. The study encompasses a theoretical review of the concepts of error culture and error climate, as well as an empirical part involving in-depth interviews with teachers from Moscow schools. The results reveal a dual understanding of errors among teachers: while they acknowledge the learning potential of errors, in practice they tend to minimize the occurrence of student errors and rely predominantly on intuitive strategies, leading to a discrepancy between their declared beliefs and actual classroom practices. The study employed a theoretical framework combining self-determination theory and the concept of negative knowledge, along with a thematic analysis of data obtained through semi-structured interviews. It was found that the use of supportive strategies lays the foundation for a positive error climate, whereas controlling strategies and the lack of systematic work limit the use of error as a resource for development.

1. Александрова, М. Ю., Воронина (Мастикова), Н., Говорова, А. Д., Гурова, О. Ю., Дьяченко, Е. Л., Нефёдова, А. И., Печурина, А. А., Полещук, С., Полухина, Е. В., Ромашко, Т. В., Рудь, Д. С., Савинская, О. Б., Спирина, М., Стрельникова, А. В., & Троцук, И. В. (2023). В Е. В. Полухина (Ред.), Практики анализа качественных данных в социальных науках. Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики». https://elibrary.ru/mggnhp

2. Азбель, А. А., Илюшин, Л. С., & Морозова, П. А. (2021). Обратная связь в обучении глазами российских подростков. Вопросы образования, 1, 195–212. https://elibrary.ru/mpurun

3. Веселкова, Н. В. (1994). Полуформализованное интервью. Социологический журнал, 3, 103–109.

4. Зинченко, В. П. (2014). Психологические основы педагогики: (Психолого-педагогические основы построения системы развивающего обучения Д. Б. Эльконина — В. В. Давыдова) : учебное пособие. Директ- Медиа. doi: 10.23681/226379

5. Поливанова, К. Н. (2000). Психология возрастных кризисов : учебное пособие. Академия.

6. Чернобай, Е. В., & Холманская, М. В. (2023). Возможности воздействия на самостоятельность учащихся через организацию обратной связи. Педагогика и психология образования, 2, 23–43. https://elibrary.ru/jansip

7. Albanese, O., Fiorilli, C., & Gnisci, A. (2007). La correzione degli errori da parte degli insegnate: tra concezioni dell’intelligenza e pratiche discorso (Teachers correct errors among intelligence conceptions and discursive practices). Ricerche di psicologia, 2, 229–57.

8. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Prentice- Hall.

9. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346. doi: 10.1080/00461520.1991.9653137

10. Harteis, C. (2006). Oser, Fritz & Spychiger, Maria (2005). Lernen ist schmerzhaft. Zur Theorie des Negativen Wissens und zur Praxis der Fehlerkultur. Swiss Journal of Educational Research, 28(3), 439–457. doi: 10.24452/sjer.28.3.5335

11. Käfer, J., Kuger, S., Klieme, E., & Kunter, M. (2019). The significance of dealing with mistakes for student achievement and motivation: Results of doubly latent multilevel analyses. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 34(3), 731–753. doi: 10.1007/s10212–018–0408–7

12. Matteucci, M. C., Corazza, M., & Santagata, R. (2015). Learning from errors, or not: An analysis of teachers’ beliefs about errors and error-handling strategies through questionnaire and video. In R. V. Narta (Ed.), Progress in Education (vol. 37, ch. 3). Nova Science.

13. Nieminen, J. H., Bearman, M., Ajjawi, R., & Boud, D. (2026). Beyond a critique of grades. Higher Education. doi: 10.1007/s10734–026–01627-z

14. Pan, S. C., Sana, F., Samani, J., Cooke, J., & Kim, J. A. (2020). Learning from errors: Students’ and instructors’ practices, attitudes, and beliefs. Memory, 28(9), 1105–1122. https://elibrary.ru/muouwv

15. Rybowiak, V., Garst, H., Frese, M., & Batinic, B. (1999). Error orientation questionnaire (EOQ): Reliability, validity, and different language equivalence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(4), 527–547. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099–1379(199907)20:4<527:: AID-JOB886>3.0.СO;2-G

16. Santagata, R. (2004). «Are you joking or are you sleeping?» Cultural beliefs and practices in Italian and U.S. teachers’ mistake- handling strategies. Linguistics and Education, 15(1–2), 141–164. doi: 10.1016/J.LINGED.2004.12.002

17. Santagata, R. (2005). Practices and beliefs in mistake- handling activities: A video study of Italian and US mathematics lessons. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 491–508. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2005.03.004

18. Skott, J. (2015). The promises, problems, and prospects of research on teachers’ beliefs. In H. Fives & M. G. Bill (Eds.), International handbook of research on teachers’ beliefs (pp. 25–42). Routledge.

19. Soncini, A., Matteucci, M. C., & Butera, F. (2021). Error handling in the classroom: An experimental study of teachers’ strategies to foster positive error climate. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 36(3), 719–738. https://elibrary.ru/gmiudi

20. Soncini, A., Matteucci, M. C., & Butera, F. (2024). Errors: Springboard for learning or tool for evaluation? Ambivalence in teachers’ error- related beliefs and practices. Social Psychology of Education, 27, 1455–1479. doi: 10.1007/s11218–023–09867-y

21. Soncini, A., Visintin, E., Matteucci, M., Tomasetto, C., & Butera, F. (2022). Positive error climate promotes learning outcomes through students’ adaptive reactions towards errors. Learning and Instruction, 80, 101627. https://elibrary.ru/zfoczh

22. Spychiger, M. , Oser, F. , Mahler, F. , & Hascher, T. (1998). Fehlerkultur aus der sicht von Schülerinnen und Schülern. Der Fehlerfragebogen S‐UFS: Entwicklung und erste Ergebnisse. Schriftenreihe zum Projekt Lernen Menschen aus Fehlern? Zur Entwicklung einer Fehlerkultur in der Schule, 4. Pädagogisches Institut der Universität Freiburg.

23. Steuer, G., Tulis, M., & Dresel, M. (2022). Is dealing with errors in the classroom specific for school subjects? A study of the error climate in mathematics, German, and English. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37(2), 355–373. https://elibrary.ru/ttufbq

24. Steuer, G., Grecu, A. L., & Mori, J. (2024). Error climate and alienation from teachers: A longitudinal analysis in primary school. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 41–54. doi: 10.1111/bjep.12659

25. Tulis, M. (2013). Error management behavior in classrooms: Teachers’ responses to student mistakes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 33, 56–68. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2013.02.003

26. Tulis, M., Steuer, G., & Dresel, M. (2016). Learning from errors: A model of individual processes. Frontline Learning Research, 4(2), 12–26. doi: 10.14786/flr.v4i2.168